2025 Guide: Pest Control in Port Charlotte for New Homeowners
Pest Control (band)
Oh, hi - welcome to the 2025 Guide: Pest Control in Port Charlotte for New Homeowners. Nuisance wildlife management If youre new to the area, you probably already noticed its warm here (especially during rainy season) and that means lots of critters out back and sometimes inside - so heres some plain talk to help you get started.
First, know your enemies: termites, roaches (palmetto bugs), ants, mosquitoes, and the occasional rat or small mammal. They arent just annoying; some can damage your home over time. Termites, for instance, quietly chew through wood and you wont always see signs until theres real damage. But dont panic - early detection usually makes control simpler.
Prevention is the best step. Keep things tidy: no piles of wet mulch, leaves or wood touching the foundation, and make sure gutters are clear so water drains away. Small cracks around doors and windows invite entry, so seal gaps when you can. Trim shrubs away from siding and avoid letting firewood sit against the house. Pest Control (band) These small tasks, done steady over months, make a big difference. Some folks think a one-time clean is enough, but it aint (youve got to be consistent).
If you find signs of infestation - droppings, chew marks, wings near light fixtures, or nests - dont wait. Take photos, note locations, and call a licensed pest control company. DIY sprays and baits can help with minor problems, but they wont solve structural termite trouble or big rodent colonies. Also, using strong chemicals without proper know-how is risky for pets and kids, so be careful and read labels. Professionals here know local species and seasonal patterns, so their inspections are worth the money.
Weather matters. In Port Charlotte, wet months push bugs indoors looking for shelter; dry spells make them cluster near moisture sources. Keep AC filters clean and fix leaks fast.
Nuisance wildlife management
Pest extermination
Insecticide
Pest-control
Pest Control
Crop Protection
Pest Control (Doctor Who)
Also, mosquitoes breed in standing water, even small amounts in gutters or plant saucers - empty them regularly. Use screens on windows and doors; screens arent foolproof, but they lower indoor visitors.
Pets and landscaping affect control choices. If you have dogs or cats, ask about pet-safe options and timing; some treatments require pets to be kept away briefly. Native plants can reduce pest pressure (and save water), so consider landscaping that doesnt attract more insects. Mulch type and depth matter too - too much mulch next to foundations invites certain insects.
Finally, build a relationship with a trusted local pro. Get estimates, check licenses and reviews, and ask about guarantees. Have a plan for routine inspections (termite checks annually is common) and keep records of treatments and warranty papers. And hey, dont procrastinate! Regular care now saves a lot of headache and expense later.
So, take a breath - you dont have to be an expert overnight. With some regular maintenance, smart choices, and the right help, your new home in Port Charlotte will be comfortable and relatively pest-free. Pest Control Port Charlotte . Welcome to the neighborhood, and good luck settling in.
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Pest control is the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest; such as any animal, plant or fungus that impacts adversely on human activities or environment.[1] The human response depends on the importance of the damage done and will range from tolerance, through deterrence and management, to attempts to completely eradicate the pest. Pest control measures may be performed as part of an integrated pest management strategy.
In agriculture, pests are kept at bay by mechanical, cultural, chemical and biological means.[2] Ploughing and cultivation of the soil before sowing mitigate the pest burden, and crop rotation helps to reduce the build-up of a certain pest species. Concern about environment means limiting the use of pesticides in favour of other methods. This can be achieved by monitoring the crop, only applying pesticides when necessary, and by growing varieties and crops which are resistant to pests. Where possible, biological means are used, encouraging the natural enemies of the pests and introducing suitable predators or parasites.[3]
In homes and urban environments, the pests are the rodents, birds, insects and other organisms that share the habitat with humans, and that feed on or spoil possessions. Control of these pests is attempted through exclusion or quarantine, repulsion, physical removal or chemical means.[4] Alternatively, various methods of biological control can be used including sterilisation programmes.
Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. As long ago as 3000 BC in Egypt, cats were used to control pests of grain stores such as rodents.[5][6]Ferrets were domesticated by 1500 BC in Europe for use as mousers. Mongooses were introduced into homes to control rodents and snakes, probably by the ancient Egyptians.[7]
The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or ploughing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.[8]
Red weaver ants, here feeding on a snail, have been used to control pests in China, Southeast Asia, and Africa for many centuries.
Chemical pesticides were first used around 2500 BC, when the Sumerians used sulphur compounds as insecticides.[9] Modern pest control was stimulated by the spread across the United States of the Colorado potato beetle. After much discussion, arsenical compounds were used to control the beetle and the predicted poisoning of the human population did not occur. This led the way to a widespread acceptance of insecticides across the continent.[10] With the industrialisation and mechanization of agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the introduction of the insecticides pyrethrum and derris, chemical pest control became widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development.[10]
The harmful side effect of pesticides on humans has now resulted in the development of newer approaches, such as the use of biological control to eliminate the ability of pests to reproduce or to modify their behavior to make them less troublesome.[citation needed] Biological control is first recorded around 300 AD in China, when colonies of weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina, were intentionally placed in citrus plantations to control beetles and caterpillars.[9] Also around 4000 BC in China, ducks were used in paddy fields to consume pests, as illustrated in ancient cave art. In 1762, an Indian mynah was brought to Mauritius to control locusts, and about the same time, citrus trees in Burma were connected by bamboos to allow ants to pass between them and help control caterpillars. In the 1880s, ladybirds were used in citrus plantations in California to control scale insects, and other biological control experiments followed. The introduction of DDT, a cheap and effective compound, put an effective stop to biological control experiments. By the 1960s, problems of resistance to chemicals and damage to the environment began to emerge, and biological control had a renaissance. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control developed towards the end of the 20th century and continues to this day.[11]
Biological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as insects and mites by using other organisms.[12] It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, parasitody or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest that are bred in the laboratory and released into the environment. An alternative approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a particular area by releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or in a single large-scale release. Ideally, the released organism will breed and survive, and provide long-term control.[13] Biological control can be an important component of an integrated pest management programme.
For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources.[14]
Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment and devices, that provides a protective barrier between plants and insects. This is referred to as tillage and is one of the oldest methods of weed control as well as being useful for pest control; wireworms, the larvae of the common click beetle, are very destructive pests of newly ploughed grassland, and repeated cultivation exposes them to the birds and other predators that feed on them.[15]
A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them from nearby crops.[17] Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily controlled using pesticides or other methods.[18] However, trap-cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost effectively reduce pest densities on large commercial scales, without the use of pesticides, possibly due to the pests' ability to disperse back into the main field.[18]
Pesticides are substances applied to crops to control pests, they include herbicides to kill weeds, fungicides to kill fungi and insecticides to kill insects. Application methods include sprays by hand, tractors, or aircraft or as seed dressings. To be effective, the correct substance must be applied at the correct time and the method of application is important to ensure adequate coverage and retention on the crop. The killing of natural enemies of the target pest should be minimized. This is particularly important in countries where there are natural reservoirs of pests and their enemies in the countryside surrounding plantation crops, and these co-exist in a delicate balance. Often in less-developed countries, the crops are well adapted to the local situation and no pesticides are needed. Where progressive farmers are using fertilizers to grow improved crop varieties, these are often more susceptible to pest damage, but the indiscriminate application of pesticides may be detrimental in the longer term.[19][unreliable source?][failed verification] The efficacy of chemical pesticides tends to diminish over time. This is because any organism that manages to survive the initial application will pass on its genes to its offspring and a resistant strain will be developed. In this way, some of the most serious pests have developed resistance and are no longer killed by pesticides that used to kill their ancestors. This necessitates higher concentrations of chemical, more frequent applications and a movement to more expensive formulations.[20]
Pesticides are intended to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-target species; of particular concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the time of day when the spray is applied can be important.[21] The widely used neonicotinoids have been banned on flowering crops in some countries because of their effects on bees.[21] Some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems in humans, as well as being harmful to wildlife.[22] There can be acute effects immediately after exposure or chronic effects after continuous low-level, or occasional exposure.[23]Maximum residue limits for pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by many nations.[24]
Using crops with inheritable resistance to pests is referred to as host-plant resistance and reduces the need for pesticide use. These crops can harm or even kill pests, repel feeding, prevent colonization, or tolerate the presence of a pest without significantly impacting yield.[25][26][27] Resistance can also occur through genetic engineering to have traits with resistance to insects, such as with Bt corn, or papaya resistance to ringspot virus.[28] When farmers are purchasing seed, variety information often includes resistance to selected pests in addition to other traits.[29]
A contemporary wood engraving of varmint hunters shooting passenger pigeons, a varmint species that was known to damage crops. Overhunting resulted in complete extinction of the species.
Pest control via hunting, like all forms of harvest, has imposed an artificial selective pressure on the organisms being targeted. While varmint hunting is potentially selecting for desired behavioural and demographic changes (e.g. animals avoiding human populated areas, crops and livestock), it can also result in unpredicted outcomes such as the targeted animal adapting for faster reproductive cycles.[31]
Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the canopy and monitor pest populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their native range, may be transported large distances in cut timber to places where they have no natural predators, enabling them to cause extensive economic damage.[32]Pheromone traps have been used to monitor pest populations in the canopy. These release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps can detect the arrival of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks. For example, the spruce budworm, a destructive pest of spruce and balsam fir, has been monitored using pheromone traps in Canadian forests for several decades.[33] In some regions, such as New Brunswick, areas of forest are sprayed with pesticide to control the budworm population and prevent the damage caused during outbreaks.[34]
Many unwelcome animals visit or make their home in residential buildings, industrial sites and urban areas. Some contaminate foodstuffs, damage structural timbers, chew through fabrics or infest stored dry goods. Some inflict great economic loss, others carry diseases or cause fire hazards, and some are just a nuisance. Control of these pests has been attempted by improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the habitat, and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides.[35]
Physical pest control involves trapping or killing pests such as insects and rodents. Historically, local people or paid rat-catchers caught and killed rodents using dogs and traps.[36] On a domestic scale, sticky flypapers are used to trap flies. In larger buildings, insects may be trapped using such means as pheromones, synthetic volatile chemicals or ultraviolet light to attract the insects; some have a sticky base or an electrically charged grid to kill them. Glueboards are sometimes used for monitoring cockroaches and to catch rodents. Rodents can be killed by suitably baited spring traps and can be caught in cage traps for relocation. Talcum powder or "tracking powder" can be used to establish routes used by rodents inside buildings and acoustic devices can be used for detecting beetles in structural timbers.[35]
Historically, firearms have been one of the primary methods used for pest control. "Garden Guns" are smooth bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 calibersnake shot or 9mm Flobert, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest. Garden Guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they're relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly, injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.[37]
The most common shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with #12 shot. At a distance of about 10 ft (3.0 m), which is about the maximum effective range, the pattern is about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter from a standard rifle. Special smoothbore shotguns, such as the Marlin Model 25MG can produce effective patterns out to 15 or 20 yards using .22 WMR shotshells, which hold 1/8 oz. of #12 shot contained in a plastic capsule.
Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rats, mice, birds, slugs, snails, ants, cockroaches, and other pests. The basic granules, or other formulation, contains a food attractant for the target species and a suitable poison. For ants, a slow-acting toxin is needed so that the workers have time to carry the substance back to the colony, and for flies, a quick-acting substance to prevent further egg-laying and nuisance.[38] Baits for slugs and snails often contain the molluscide metaldehyde, dangerous to children and household pets.[39]
Warfarin has traditionally been used to kill rodents, but many populations have developed resistance to this anticoagulant, and difenacoum may be substituted. These are cumulative poisons, requiring bait stations to be topped up regularly.[38] Poisoned meat has been used for centuries to kill animals such as wolves[41] and birds of prey.[42] Poisoned carcasses however kill a wide range of carrion feeders, not only the targeted species.[41] Raptors in Israel were nearly wiped out following a period of intense poisoning of rats and other crop pests.[43]
Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-boring beetles by sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover such as a tent, and fogging with liquid insecticide for an extended period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly and inconvenient as the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets all life stages of pests.[44]
An alternative, space treatment, is fogging or misting to disperse a liquid insecticide in the atmosphere within a building without evacuation or airtight sealing, allowing most work within the building to continue, at the cost of reduced penetration. Contact insecticides are generally used to minimize long-lasting residual effects.[44]
Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release of sterile individuals. This involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilising it by means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it into a wild population. It is particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does not disperse widely.[45] This technique has been successfully used against the New World screw-worm fly, some species of tsetse fly, tropical fruit flies, the pink bollworm and the codling moth, among others.[46]
To chemically sterilize pests using chemosterilants, laboratory studies conducted using U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) attempted in the early 1970s for rat control, although these proved unsuccessful.[47] In 2013, New York City tested sterilization traps,[48] demonstrating a 43% reduction in rat populations.[48] The product ContraPest was approved for the sterilization of rodents by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in August 2016 as a chemosterilant.[49]
Boron, a known pesticide can be impregnated into the paper fibers of cellulose insulation at certain levels to achieve a mechanical kill factor for self-grooming insects such as ants, cockroaches, termites, and more. The addition of insulation into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control of common pests in addition to known insulation benefits such a robust thermal envelope and acoustic noise-canceling properties. The EPA regulates this type of general-use pesticide within the United States allowing it to only be sold and installed by licensed pest management professionals as part of an integrated pest management program.[50] Simply adding Boron or an EPA-registered pesticide to an insulation does not qualify it as a pesticide. The dosage and method must be carefully controlled and monitored.
Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, but it is difficult to keep them away from airfields. Several methods have been explored. Stunning birds by feeding them a bait containing stupefying substances has been tried,[51] and it may be possible to reduce their numbers on airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and other invertebrates by soil treatment.[51] Leaving the grass long on airfields rather than mowing it is also a deterrent to birds.[52] Sonic nets are being trialled; these produce sounds that birds find distracting and seem effective at keeping birds away from affected areas.[53]
^Elliott, N. C., Farrell, J. A., Gutierrez, A. P., van Lenteren, J. C., Walton, M. P., & Wratten, S. (1995). Integrated pest management. Springer Science & Business Media.
^Dent, D., & Binks, R. H. (2020). Insect pest management. Cabi.
^Flint, M. L., & Van den Bosch, R. (2012). Introduction to integrated pest management. Springer Science & Business Media.
^Gerozisis, J., Hadlington, P. W., & Staunton, I. (2008). Urban pest management in Australia. UNSW Press.
^ ab"The History of Integrated Pest Management". Cornell University. Retrieved 27 August 2017. which cites Orlob, G.B. (1973). "Ancient and medieval plant pathology". Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten. 26: 65–294.
^Shelton, A. M.; Badenes-Perez, F. R. (6 December 2005). "Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management". Annual Review of Entomology. 51 (1): 285–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959. PMID16332213.
^"Host Plant Resistance". vegento.russell.wisc.edu. University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
^Smith, Charles Michael (2005). Plant resistance to arthropods: molecular and conventional approaches. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. ISBN978-1-4020-3702-3.
^Tellman, Barbara. "Varmint control in Cochise County over the years." (2005)
^Allendorf, Fred W.; Hard, Jeffrey J. "Human-induced evolution caused by unnatural selection through harvest of wild animals." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106. Supplement 1 (2009): 9987-9994
^"ESDAW-EU". Animal Policy In The EU. European Union. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
^Eger, Christopher (28 July 2013). "Marlin 25MG Garden Gun". Marlin Firearms Forum. Outdoor Hub LLC. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
A self-propelled crop sprayer spraying pesticide on a fieldA crop-duster spraying pesticide on a field
Pesticides are substances that are used to controlpests.[1] They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table).[2] The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all pesticide use globally.[3] Most pesticides are used as plant protection products (also known as crop protection products), which in general protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects.
any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals, causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport.[6]
Biopesticides according to the EPA include microbial pesticides, biochemical pesticides, and plant-incorporated protectants.[8]
Pesticides can be classified into structural classes, with many structural classes developed for each of the target organisms listed in the table. A structural class is usually associated with a single mode of action, whereas a mode of action may encompass more than one structural class.
The pesticidal chemical (active ingredient) is mixed (formulated) with other components to form the product that is sold, and which is applied in various ways. Pesticides in gas form are fumigants.
Pesticides can be classified based upon their mode of action, which indicates the exact biological mechanism which the pesticide disrupts. The modes of action are important for resistance management, and are categorized and administered by the insecticide, herbicide, and fungicide resistance action committees.
Pesticides may be systemic or non-systemic.[9][10] A systemic pesticide moves (translocates) inside the plant. Translocation may be upward in the xylem, or downward in the phloem or both. Non-systemic pesticides (contact pesticides) remain on the surface and act through direct contact with the target organism. Pesticides are more effective if they are systemic. Systemicity is a prerequisite for the pesticide to be used as a seed-treatment.
Pesticides can be classified as persistent (non-biodegradable) or non-persistent (biodegradable). A pesticide must be persistent enough to kill or control its target but must degrade fast enough not to accumulate in the environment or the food chain in order to be approved by the authorities.[11][12] Persistent pesticides, including DDT, were banned many years ago, an exception being spraying in houses to combat malariavectors.[13]
From ancient times until the 1950s the pesticides used were inorganic compounds and plant extracts.[14][15] The inorganic compounds were derivatives of copper, arsenic, mercury, sulfur, among others, and the plant extracts contained pyrethrum, nicotine, and rotenone among others. The less toxic of these are still in use in organic farming. In the 1940s the insecticide DDT, and the herbicide 2,4-D, were introduced. These synthetic organic compounds were widely used and were very profitable. They were followed in the 1950s and 1960s by numerous other synthetic pesticides, which led to the growth of the pesticide industry.[14][15] During this period, it became increasingly evident that DDT, which had been sprayed widely in the environment to combat the vector, had accumulated in the food chain. It had become a global pollutant, as summarized in the well-known book Silent Spring. Finally, DDT was banned in the 1970s in several countries, and subsequently all persistent pesticides were banned worldwide, an exception being spraying on interior walls for vector control.[13]
Resistance to a pesticide was first seen in the 1920s with inorganic pesticides,[14] and later it was found that development of resistance is to be expected, and measures to delay it are important. Integrated pest management (IPM) was introduced in the 1950s. By careful analysis and spraying only when an economical or biological threshold of crop damage is reached, pesticide application is reduced. This became in the 2020s the official policy of international organisations, industry, and many governments.[15] With the introduction of high yielding varieties in the 1960s in the green revolution, more pesticides were used.[15] Since the 1980s genetically modified crops were introduced, which resulted in lower amounts of insecticides used on them.[15]Organic agriculture, which uses only non-synthetic pesticides, has grown and in 2020 represents about 1.5 per cent of the world's total agricultural land.[15]
Pesticides have become more effective. Application rates fell from 1,000 to 2,500 grams of active ingredient per hectare (g/ha) in the 1950s to 40–100 g/ha in the 2000s.[15] Despite this, amounts used have increased. In high income countries over 20 years between the 1990s and 2010s amounts used increased 20%, while in the low income countries amounts increased 1623%.[15]
The aim is to find new compounds or agents with improved properties such as a new mode of action or lower application rate. Another aim is to replace older pesticides which have been banned for reasons of toxicity or environmental harm or have become less effective due to development of resistance.[16][17][18][19]
The process starts with testing (screening) against target organisms such as insects, fungi or plants. Inputs are typically random compounds, natural products,[20] compounds designed to disrupt a biochemical target, compounds described in patents or literature, or biocontrol organisms.
Compounds that are active in the screening process, known as hits or leads, cannot be used as pesticides, except for biocontrol organisms and some potent natural products. These lead compounds need to be optimised by a series of cycles of synthesis and testing of analogs. For approval by regulatory authorities for use as pesticides, the optimized compounds must meet several requirements.[11][12] In addition to being potent (low application rate), they must show low toxicity to non-target organisms, low environmental impact, and viable manufacturing cost. The cost of developing a pesticide in 2024 was estimated to be 301 million US dollars.[21] It has become more difficult to find new pesticides. More than 100 new active ingredients were introduced in the 2000s and less than 40 in the 2010s.[15]Biopesticides are cheaper to develop, since the authorities require less toxicological and environmental study. Since 2000 the rate of new biological product introduction has frequently exceeded that of conventional products.[15]
More than 25% of existing chemical pesticides contain one or more chiral centres (stereogenic centres).[22] Newer pesticides with lower application rates tend to have more complex structures, and thus more often contain chiral centres.[22] In cases when most or all of the pesticidal activity in a new compound is found in one enantiomer (the eutomer), the registration and use of the compound as this single enantiomer is preferred. This reduces the total application rate and avoids the tedious environmental testing required when registering a racemate.[23][24] However, if a viableenantioselective manufacturing route cannot be found, then the racemate is registered and used.
In addition to their main use in agriculture, pesticides have a number of other applications. Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful, or pernicious to their surroundings.[26] For example, they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases like West Nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria. They can also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions. Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by parasites such as fleas.[26] Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused by moldy food or diseased produce. Herbicides can be used to clear roadside weeds, trees, and brush. They can also kill invasive weeds that may cause environmental damage. Herbicides are commonly applied in ponds and lakes to control algae and plants such as water grasses that can interfere with activities like swimming and fishing and cause the water to look or smell unpleasant.[27] Uncontrolled pests such as termites and mold can damage structures such as houses.[26] Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain. Pesticides are used on lawns and golf courses, partly for cosmetic reasons.[28]
Integrated pest management, the use of multiple approaches to control pests, is becoming widespread and has been used with success in countries such as Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, the U.S., Australia, and Mexico.[29] IPM attempts to recognize the more widespread impacts of an action on an ecosystem, so that natural balances are not upset.[30]
DDT, sprayed on the walls of houses, is an organochlorine that has been used to fight malaria vectors (mosquitos) since the 1940s. The World Health Organization recommend this approach.[31] It and other organochlorine pesticides have been banned in most countries worldwide because of their persistence in the environment and human toxicity. DDT has become less effective, as resistance was identified in Africa as early as 1955, and by 1972 nineteen species of mosquito worldwide were resistant to DDT.[32][33]
Total pesticides use in agriculture in 2021 was 3.54 million tonnes of active ingredients (Mt), a 4 percent increase with respect to 2020, an 11 percent increase in a decade, and a doubling since 1990. Pesticides use per area of cropland in 2021 was 2.26 kg per hectare (kg/ha), an increase of 4 percent with respect to 2020; use per value of agricultural production was 0.86 kg per thousand international dollar (kg/1000 I$) (+2%); and use per person was 0.45 kg per capita (kg/cap) (+3%). Between 1990 and 2021, these indicators increased by 85 percent, 3 percent, and 33 percent, respectively. Brazil was the world's largest user of pesticides in 2021, with 720 kt of pesticides applications for agricultural use, while the USA (457 kt) was the second-largest user.[35][36]
Applications per cropland area in 2021 varied widely, from 10.9 kg/hectare in Brazil to 0.8 kg/ha in the Russian Federation. The level in Brazil was about twice as high as in Argentina (5.6 kg/ha) and Indonesia (5.3 kg/ha).[35] Insecticide use in the US has declined by more than half since 1980 (0.6%/yr), mostly due to the near phase-out of organophosphates. In corn fields, the decline was even steeper, due to the switchover to transgenicBt corn.[37]
Pesticides increase agricultural yields.[38] Median yield increases range between 12% and 27% when pesticides are used, depending on the crop.[39] Another study found that not using pesticides reduced crop yields by about 10%.[40] A study conducted in 1999, found that a ban on pesticides in the United States may result in a rise of food prices, loss of jobs, and an increase in world hunger.[41]
There are two levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary. Primary benefits are direct gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects that are more long-term.[42]
Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms
Human lives saved and disease reduced. Diseases controlled include malaria,[42] with millions of lives having been saved or enhanced with the use of DDT alone.[43]
Animal lives saved and disease reduced
Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures
In 2018 world pesticide sales were estimated to be $65 billion, of which 88% was used for agriculture.[15] Generic accounted for 85% of sales in 2018.[44] In one study, it was estimated that for every dollar ($1) that is spent on pesticides for crops results in up to four dollars ($4) in crops which would otherwise be lost to insects, fungi and weeds.[45] In general, farmers benefit from having an increase in crop yield and from being able to grow a variety of crops throughout the year. Consumers of agricultural products also benefit from being able to afford the vast quantities of produce available year-round.[42]
On the cost side of pesticide use there can be costs to the environment and costs to human health.[46] Pesticides safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.[27]
Most health concerns related to pesticides stem from direct use, whether in occupational or non-occupational settings. In contrast, health risks from pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables are considered minimal.
Occupational use of pesticides may affect health negatively.[47][48] mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer.[49] A 2007 systematic review found that "most studies on non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased.[50] There is substantial evidence of associations between organophosphate insecticide exposures and neurobehavioral alterations.[51][52][53][54] Limited evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, and fetal death.[55]
2014 epidemiological review found associations between autism and exposure to certain pesticides, but noted that the available evidence was insufficient to conclude that the relationship was causal.[56]
Owing to inadequate regulation and safety precautions, 99% of pesticide-related deaths occur in developing countries that account for only 25% of pesticide usage.[57]
According to the American Cancer Society there is no evidence that pesticide residues in food increase the risk of people getting cancer.[58] A 2009 study estimated that lifetime exposure to pesticide residues from eating fruits and vegetables results in only 4.2 and 3.2 minutes of lost life per person in Switzerland and the United States, respectively.[59]
Pesticides are also found in majority of U.S. households with 88 million out of the 121.1 million households indicating that they use some form of pesticide in 2012.[60][61] As of 2007, there were more than 1,055 active ingredients registered as pesticides,[62] which yield over 20,000 pesticide products that are marketed in the United States.[63]
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limiting exposure of children to pesticides and using safer alternatives:[64]
One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.[65]
The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that 3 million agricultural workers in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides each year, resulting in 18,000 deaths.[29] According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.[66] Other occupational exposures besides agricultural workers, including pet groomers, groundskeepers, and fumigators, may also put individuals at risk of health effects from pesticides.[63]
Pesticide use is widespread in Latin America, as around US$3 billion are spent each year in the region. Records indicate an increase in the frequency of pesticide poisonings over the past two decades. The most common incidents of pesticide poisoning is thought to result from exposure to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.[67] At-home pesticide use, use of unregulated products, and the role of undocumented workers within the agricultural industry makes characterizing true pesticide exposure a challenge. It is estimated that 50–80% of pesticide poisoning cases are unreported.
Underreporting of pesticide poisoning is especially common in areas where agricultural workers are less likely to seek care from a healthcare facility that may be monitoring or tracking the incidence of acute poisoning. The extent of unintentional pesticide poisoning may be much greater than available data suggest, particularly among developing countries. Globally, agriculture and food production remain one of the largest industries. In East Africa, the agricultural industry represents one of the largest sectors of the economy, with nearly 80% of its population relying on agriculture for income.[68] Farmers in these communities rely on pesticide products to maintain high crop yields.
Some East Africa governments are shifting to corporate farming, and opportunities for foreign conglomerates to operate commercial farms have led to more accessible research on pesticide use and exposure among workers. In other areas where large proportions of the population rely on subsistence, small-scale farming, estimating pesticide use and exposure is more difficult.
The cholinergic synapse and the breakdown of acetylcholine into choline and acetate by acetylcholinesterase
Pesticides may exhibit toxic effects on humans and other non-target species, the severity of which depends on the frequency and magnitude of exposure. Toxicity also depends on the rate of absorption, distribution within the body, metabolism, and elimination of compounds from the body. Commonly used pesticides like organophosphates and carbamates act by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity, which prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine at the neural synapse. Excess acetylcholine can lead to symptoms like muscle cramps or tremors, confusion, dizziness and nausea. Studies show that farm workers in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe have decreased concentrations of plasma acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine acting on synapses throughout the nervous system.[69][70][71] Other studies in Ethiopia have observed reduced respiratory function among farm workers who spray crops with pesticides.[72] Numerous exposure pathways for farm workers increase the risk of pesticide poisoning, including dermal absorption walking through fields and applying products, as well as inhalation exposure.
There are multiple approaches to measuring a person's exposure to pesticides, each of which provides an estimate of an individual's internal dose. Two broad approaches include measuring biomarkers and markers of biological effect.[73] The former involves taking direct measurement of the parent compound or its metabolites in various types of media: urine, blood, serum. Biomarkers may include a direct measurement of the compound in the body before it's been biotransformed during metabolism. Other suitable biomarkers may include the metabolites of the parent compound after they've been biotransformed during metabolism.[73] Toxicokinetic data can provide more detailed information on how quickly the compound is metabolized and eliminated from the body, and provide insights into the timing of exposure.
Markers of biological effect provide an estimation of exposure based on cellular activities related to the mechanism of action. For example, many studies investigating exposure to pesticides often involve the quantification of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme at the neural synapse to determine the magnitude of the inhibitory effect of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides.[69][70][71][73]
Another method of quantifying exposure involves measuring, at the molecular level, the amount of pesticide interacting with the site of action. These methods are more commonly used for occupational exposures where the mechanism of action is better understood, as described by WHO guidelines published in "Biological Monitoring of Chemical Exposure in the Workplace".[74] Better understanding of how pesticides elicit their toxic effects is needed before this method of exposure assessment can be applied to occupational exposure of agricultural workers.
Alternative methods to assess exposure include questionnaires to discern from participants whether they are experiencing symptoms associated with pesticide poisoning. Self-reported symptoms may include headaches, dizziness, nausea, joint pain, or respiratory symptoms.[70]
Multiple challenges exist in assessing exposure to pesticides in the general population, and many others that are specific to occupational exposures of agricultural workers. Beyond farm workers, estimating exposure to family members and children presents additional challenges, and may occur through "take-home" exposure from pesticide residues collected on clothing or equipment belonging to parent farm workers and inadvertently brought into the home. Children may also be exposed to pesticides prenatally from mothers who are exposed to pesticides during pregnancy.[51] Characterizing children's exposure resulting from drift of airborne and spray application of pesticides is similarly challenging, yet well documented in developing countries.[75] Because of critical development periods of the fetus and newborn children, these non-working populations are more vulnerable to the effects of pesticides, and may be at increased risk of developing neurocognitive effects and impaired development.[51][57]
While measuring biomarkers or markers of biological effects may provide more accurate estimates of exposure, collecting these data in the field is often impractical and many methods are not sensitive enough to detect low-level concentrations. Rapid cholinesterase test kits exist to collect blood samples in the field. Conducting large scale assessments of agricultural workers in remote regions of developing countries makes the implementation of these kits a challenge.[73] The cholinesterase assay is a useful clinical tool to assess individual exposure and acute toxicity. Considerable variability in baseline enzyme activity among individuals makes it difficult to compare field measurements of cholinesterase activity to a reference dose to determine health risk associated with exposure.[73] Another challenge in deriving a reference dose is identifying health endpoints that are relevant to exposure. More epidemiological research is needed to identify critical health endpoints, particularly among populations who are occupationally exposed.
Minimizing harmful exposure to pesticides can be achieved by proper use of personal protective equipment, adequate reentry times into recently sprayed areas, and effective product labeling for hazardous substances as per FIFRA regulations. Training high-risk populations, including agricultural workers, on the proper use and storage of pesticides, can reduce the incidence of acute pesticide poisoning and potential chronic health effects associated with exposure. Continued research into the human toxic health effects of pesticides serves as a basis for relevant policies and enforceable standards that are health protective to all populations.
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.[29]Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some pesticides were persistent organic pollutants (now banned), which contribute to soil and flower (pollen, nectar) contamination.[76] Furthermore, pesticide use can adversely impact neighboring agricultural activity, as pests themselves drift to and harm nearby crops that have no pesticide used on them.[77]
In addition, pesticide use reduces invertebrate biodiversity in streams,[78] contributes to pollinator decline,[79][80][81] destroys habitat (especially for birds),[82] and threatens endangered species.[29] Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide (pesticide resistance), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.
Pesticides now have to be degradable in the environment. Such degradation of pesticides is due to both innate chemical properties of the compounds and environmental processes or conditions.[90] For example, the presence of halogens within a chemical structure often slows down degradation in an aerobic environment.[91]Adsorption to soil may retard pesticide movement, but also may reduce bioavailability to microbial degraders.[92]
In one study, the human health and environmental costs due to pesticides in the United States was estimated to be $9.6 billion: offset by about $40 billion in increased agricultural production.[93]
Additional costs include the registration process and the cost of purchasing pesticides: which are typically borne by agrichemical companies and farmers respectively. The registration process can take several years to complete (there are 70 types of field tests) and can cost $50–70 million for a single pesticide.[93] At the beginning of the 21st century, the United States spent approximately $10 billion on pesticides annually.[93]
The use of pesticides inherently entails the risk of resistance developing. Various techniques and procedures of pesticide application can slow the development of resistance, as can some natural features of the target population and surrounding environment.[4]
Alternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of biological pest controls (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides), genetic engineering (mostly of crops), and methods of interfering with insect breeding.[29] Application of composted yard waste has also been used as a way of controlling pests.[94]
These methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides. In addition, EPA is registering reduced-risk pesticides in increasing numbers.[citation needed]
Cultivation practices include polyculture (growing multiple types of plants), crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop.[29] Trap crops have successfully controlled pests in some commercial agricultural systems while reducing pesticide usage.[95] In other systems, trap crops can fail to reduce pest densities at a commercial scale, even when the trap crop works in controlled experiments.[96]
Interfering with insects' reproduction can be accomplished by sterilizing males of the target species and releasing them, so that they mate with females but do not produce offspring.[29] This technique was first used on the screwworm fly in 1958 and has since been used with the medfly, the tsetse fly,[97] and the gypsy moth.[98] This is a costly and slow approach that only works on some types of insects.[29]
Push-pull technique: intercropping with a "push" crop that repels the pest, and planting a "pull" crop on the boundary that attracts and traps it.[100]
Some evidence shows that alternatives to pesticides can be equally effective as the use of chemicals. A study of Maize fields in northern Florida found that the application of composted yard waste with high carbon to nitrogen ratio to agricultural fields was highly effective at reducing the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and increasing crop yield, with yield increases ranging from 10% to 212%; the observed effects were long-term, often not appearing until the third season of the study.[94] Additional silicon nutrition protects some horticultural crops against fungal diseases almost completely, while insufficient silicon sometimes leads to severe infection even when fungicides are used.[101]
Pesticide resistance is increasing and that may make alternatives more attractive.
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. Biopesticides fall into three major classes:
Microbial pesticides which consist of bacteria, entomopathogenic fungi or viruses (and sometimes includes the metabolites that bacteria or fungi produce). Entomopathogenic nematodes are also often classed as microbial pesticides, even though they are multi-cellular.[102][103]
Biochemical pesticides or herbal pesticides[104] are naturally occurring substances that control (or monitor in the case of pheromones) pests and microbial diseases.
Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) have genetic material from other species incorporated into their genetic material (i.e.GM crops). Their use is controversial, especially in many European countries.[105]
In many countries, pesticides must be approved for sale and use by a government agency.[109][110]
Worldwide, 85% of countries have pesticide legislation for the proper storage of pesticides and 51% include provisions to ensure proper disposal of all obsolete pesticides.[111]
Though pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides, and products on which they were used are traded across international borders. To deal with inconsistencies in regulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization adopted an International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for many countries.[109] The Code was updated in 1998 and 2002.[112] The FAO claims that the code has raised awareness about pesticide hazards and decreased the number of countries without restrictions on pesticide use.[6]
Studies must be conducted to establish the conditions in which the material is safe to use and the effectiveness against the intended pest(s).[115] The EPA regulates pesticides to ensure that these products do not pose adverse effects to humans or the environment, with an emphasis on the health and safety of children.[116] Pesticides produced before November 1984 continue to be reassessed in order to meet the current scientific and regulatory standards. All registered pesticides are reviewed every 15 years to ensure they meet the proper standards.[114] During the registration process, a label is created. The label contains directions for proper use of the material in addition to safety restrictions. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a Toxicity Class. Pesticides are the most thoroughly tested chemicals after drugs in the United States; those used on food require more than 100 tests to determine a range of potential impacts.[116]
Some pesticides are considered too hazardous for sale to the general public and are designated restricted use pesticides. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides.[109] Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations.[117][118] These records must be made available to employees and state or territorial environmental regulatory agencies.[119][120]
In addition to the EPA, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set standards for the level of pesticide residue that is allowed on or in crops.[121] The EPA looks at what the potential human health and environmental effects might be associated with the use of the pesticide.[122]
In addition, the U.S. EPA uses the National Research Council's four-step process for human health risk assessment: (1) Hazard Identification, (2) Dose-Response Assessment, (3) Exposure Assessment, and (4) Risk Characterization.[123]
In 2013 Kaua'i County (Hawaiʻi) passed Bill No. 2491 to add an article to Chapter 22 of the county's code relating to pesticides and GMOs. The bill strengthens protections of local communities in Kaua'i where many large pesticide companies test their products.[124]
The first legislation providing federal authority for regulating pesticides was enacted in 1910.[62]
EU legislation has been approved banning the use of highly toxic pesticides including those that are carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction, those that are endocrine-disrupting, and those that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (vPvB) and measures have been approved to improve the general safety of pesticides across all EU member states.[125]
In 2023 The Environment Committee of European Parliament approved a decision aiming to reduce pesticide use by 50% (the most hazardous by 65%) by the year 2030 and ensure sustainable use of pesticides (for example use them only as a last resort). The decision also includes measures for providing farmers with alternatives.[126]
Pesticide residue refers to the pesticides that may remain on or in food after they are applied to food crops.[127] The maximum residue limits (MRL) of pesticides in food are carefully set by the regulatory authorities to ensure, to their best judgement, no health impacts. Regulations such as pre-harvest intervals also often prevent harvest of crop or livestock products if recently treated in order to allow residue concentrations to decrease over time to safe levels before harvest. Exposure of the general population to these residues most commonly occurs through consumption of treated food sources, or being in close contact to areas treated with pesticides such as farms or lawns.[128]
Persistent pesticides are no longer used for agriculture, and will not be approved by the authorities.[129][130] Because the half life in soil is long (for DDT 2–15 years[88]) residues can still be detected in humans at levels 5 to 10 times lower than found in the 1970s.[89]
Residues are monitored by the authorities. In 2016, over 99% of samples of US produce had no pesticide residue or had residue levels well below the EPA tolerance levels for each pesticide.[131]
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