Top 5 Trends in Interior Paint Colors for 2026

As we look forward to the year 2026, the interior design landscape is already buzzing with anticipation over the emerging paint color trends that are expected to dominate our living spaces. It's an exciting time for homeowners and designers alike as these trends not only reflect our evolving tastes but also our shifting lifestyles and the technological advancements that influence them. Let's dive into what are shaping up to be the top five interior paint color trends for 2026!


Firstly, one cannot ignore the rising popularity of earthy tones.

systems

  • precision
  • aesthetics
  • humidity
  • solutions
  • value
  • curing
  • drywall
  • balance
  • coordination
  • preparation
  • lighting
  • priming
  • drying
  • detail
  • lines
painters These colors, inspired by nature, offer a calming effect which is becoming increasingly desirable in a world that seems to be always switched on. Expect to see more of warm terracotta, soft clay, and muted greens that bring an organic feel to our homes. These colors work wonderfully to create a tranquil sanctuary from the busy world outside, perfect for relaxation and rejuvenation.


Second on our list is the bold move towards monochromatic palettes. This trend involves using varying shades of the same color to achieve a sophisticated and cohesive look.

doors

  1. protection
  2. finishes
  3. color
  4. walls
  5. abrasion
  6. exteriors
  7. matte
  8. precision
  9. aesthetics
  10. humidity
  11. solutions
  12. value
Imagine a room in shades of deep blue - from a light sky blue on the ceiling to a rich navy for the accent walls. This technique not only adds depth and interest but also helps in creating a very harmonious environment. It's a great choice for those who enjoy a streamlined aesthetic but still want a touch of drama!


environments

Thirdly, we are seeing a revival of the 70s vibrancy but with a modern twist. Bright and bold colors like oranges, pinks, and yellows are making a comeback, but in more muted, dusty tones. undefined undefined undefined. efficiency These aren't the overwhelming hues of the past but rather more refined versions that can be used more liberally throughout the home without overwhelming the senses. It's a nod to retro style with a contemporary edge, perfect for adding some fun pops of color!


Moreover, the influence of technology and innovation is clearly visible with the increased interest in metallic and pearlescent finishes. These reflective paints add a touch of luxury and futuristic feel to any space.

protection

  1. washability
  2. application
  3. maintenance
  4. planning
  5. coverage
  6. harmony
  7. coatings
  8. materials
  9. residential
  10. satin
  11. uniformity
Imagine having a feature wall in a shimmering silver or a soft, pearlescent blue that changes hue as the light shifts throughout the day.

stains

  1. gloss
  2. washability
  3. application
  4. maintenance
  5. planning
  6. coverage
  7. harmony
  8. coatings
  9. materials
  10. residential
  11. satin
  12. uniformity
  13. reliability
  14. property
  15. consistency
It's an exciting way to bring a dynamic element into a room!


Lastly, the trend of using soothing blues and serene greens is expected to continue growing.

doors

  1. washability
  2. application
  3. maintenance
  4. planning
  5. coverage
  6. harmony
  7. coatings
  8. materials
  9. residential
  10. satin
  11. uniformity
  12. reliability
  13. property
These colors have a proven psychological benefit of reducing stress and promoting a peaceful atmosphere. workmanship As mental health becomes a more prominent concern, designing spaces that contribute to wellbeing is becoming a priority.

protection

  1. reliability
  2. property
  3. consistency
  4. expertise
  5. durable
  6. floors
  7. transitions
  8. plaster
  9. spaces
  10. resistance
  11. texture
  12. care
  13. woodwork
  14. preservation
adhesion Shades like soft teal, pale aqua, and gentle mint will be popular choices for creating a calming oasis in our homes.


In conclusion, the interior paint colors for 2026 are shaping up to be a diverse palette that ranges from earthy and organic to bold and technological. Each trend offers a unique way to express personal style while responding to the broader shifts in our global culture.

stains

  • protection
  • finishes
  • color
  • walls
  • abrasion
  • exteriors
  • matte
  • precision
  • aesthetics
  • humidity
  • solutions
  • value
Whether you're renovating your entire home or just looking for a quick update with a fresh coat of paint, these trends will provide plenty of inspirations.

efficiency

  1. performance
  2. upkeep
  3. palette
  4. premium
  5. scuffing
  6. inspection
  7. surfaces
  8. workmanship
  9. doors
  10. commercial
  11. efficiency
  12. cleaning
  13. patching
Get ready to embrace the new hues of 2026!

Elite Trade Painting

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Canada
A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre.
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
 
A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green
Capital Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667
Largest city Toronto
Official languages
Demonym Canadian
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
 
• Monarch
Charles III
Mary Simon
Mark Carney
 
Legislature Parliament
Senate
House of Commons
Independence 
from the United Kingdom
 
July 1, 1867
November 15, 1926
December 11, 1931
April 17, 1982
 
Area
• Total area
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)
11.76 (2015)[2]
• Total land area
9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2025 Q4 estimate
Neutral decrease 41,575,585[3] (37th)
• 2021 census
Neutral increase 36,991,981[4]
• Density
4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (230th)
GDP  (PPP) 2025 estimate
• Total
Increase $2.723 trillion[5] (16th)
• Per capita
Increase $65,500[5] (30th)
GDP  (nominal) 2025 estimate
• Total
Decrease $2.284 trillion[5] (10th)
• Per capita
Decrease $54,935[5] (23rd)
Gini  (2024) Positive decrease 29.2[6]
low inequality
HDI  (2023) Increase 0.939[7] very high (16th)
Currency Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)
UTC−2.5 to −7
Calling code +1
ISO 3166 code CA
Internet TLD .ca

Canada[a] is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the second-largest country by total area, with the longest coastline of any country. Its border with the United States is the longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of over 41 million, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in its urban areas and large areas being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.

A developed country, Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is recognized as a middle power; its support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participation in multiple international organizations and forums.

Etymology

[edit]

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning 'village' or 'settlement'.[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] Following the British conquest of New France, this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791.[12] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively referred to as the Canadas until their union as the Province of Canada in 1841.[13]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title.[14] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".[15]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[16]

History

[edit]

Indigenous peoples

[edit]

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[17] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[18] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[19] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[20] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[21] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and their offspring subsequently developed their own identity.[21]

A map of Canada showing the percent of self-reported indigenous identity (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the 2021 Canadian census[22]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[23] and two million,[24] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[25] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.[26] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,[27] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[28]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[29] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[30] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.[31] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.[32] Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[33] A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008.[34] This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide,[35] settlement agreements,[34] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[36]

European colonization

[edit]
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750. Possessions of British America (pink), New France (blue), and New Spain (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.[37]

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[38] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[39] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.[40] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[41] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[42] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[43]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[44] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[46] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[47] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[48]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[49] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[50] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[51]

British North America

[edit]
Painting of General Wolfe dying in front of the British flag while attended by officers and native allies
Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City.[52]

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[16] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[53] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[54] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[55] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[56] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[16]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[57] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[58] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[59]

Painting of Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams
War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams[60]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[61] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[62] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[63] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[23]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[64] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[16] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[65] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[66] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–British Columbia border.[67]

Confederation and expansion

[edit]
Refer to caption
Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867[68]

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[69] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[70] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[71] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[72] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[72] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[73]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.[74] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",[75] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[76] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[77] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[78] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[79] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[80]

Early 20th century

[edit]
1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three Frenchwomen pulling a drag harrow
English: They serve France. How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds.
Quebec French: They serve France. Everyone can be of service. Buy Victory Bonds.

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.[81] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[82] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[83] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[82] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.[84]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[85] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[86] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[82]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War.[87] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[82] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[88] Despite another conscription crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[89]

Contemporary era

[edit]

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[90] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[91]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,[92] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[93] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[94] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[95]

refer to caption
A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms[96]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[97] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[98] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[99]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[100] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,[101] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[102] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[103] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[104] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[102]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[105] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[106] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[107] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.[108] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars,[109] and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".[110] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.[111]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War[112] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[113] The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, causing widespread social and economic disruption.[114] In 2021, possible gravesites of Indigenous children were found near former Canadian residential schools, highlighting the cultural genocide against Indigenous peoples.[115] A trade war involving the United States began on February 1, 2025, when U.S. president Donald Trump signed orders imposing tariffs on goods entering the United States, alongside rhetoric suggesting the annexation of Canada.[116]

Geography

[edit]
refer to caption
A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country.[117] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes.[118] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 square kilometres (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[119] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[120] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi)[b]—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island,[121] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[122] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[123] In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias, Yukon Territory, at 141°W.[124]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.[125] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[119] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.[119] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.[126] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera.[127] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.[128]

Climate

[edit]
Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[129] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[130]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[131] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[119] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[132] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.[133] Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally,[134] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.[135]

Biodiversity

[edit]
Map showing Canada divided into different ecozones
Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.[136]

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[137] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[138] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[139] due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[140] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".[141] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[142] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 square kilometres (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[143] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.[144]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[145] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[145] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park was established in 1885.[146] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park was established in 1893.[147] Established in 2015, Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area.[148] Canada's largest national wildlife region, established in 2018, is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area.[149]

Government and politics

[edit]
Aerial view of Canadian Parliament Buildings and their surroundings

Canada is described as a "full democracy",[150] with a tradition of liberalism,[151] and an egalitarian,[152] moderate political ideology.[153] Since the 1960s, an emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[154] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of Canadian federalism.[155]

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics":[c] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada[158] and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[159] The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale.[159] Five parties had representatives elected to Parliament in the 2025 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the Bloc Québécois; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left[160]); and the Green Party.[161] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[162]

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[163] The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries[164] and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.[165]

The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.[166] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations,[167] the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,[168] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House.[169] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[167] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[170]

The House of Commons chamber
The House of Commons in its temporary location, the West Block[171]

The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.[172]

Each of the 343 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[173] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[174]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[175] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,[176] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[177]

Law

[edit]

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[178] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[179] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[180] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[181]

Supreme Court of Canada building
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.[182] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.[183] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[184]

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates.[185] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[186] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[187] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[188]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[189] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[190] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[190] These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[191]

Provinces and territories

[edit]
Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories[192]

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[193] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and social programs,[194] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[195]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown[196] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada[197] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,[198] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively[199] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[200]

Foreign relations

[edit]
Diplomatic missions of Canada[201]
  Countries that host a Canadian Embassy or High Commission
  Interests section and other representations
  Countries that do not host Canadian diplomatic missions
  Canada

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.[202] Globalization has significantly influenced Canadian foreign policies,[203] with the country known for its promotion of peace and security through mediation,[204] and for providing aid to developing countries.[205]

Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship;[206] historically close allies, they co-operate regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.[207] Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,[208] along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[209] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War.[88] Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.[201]

Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participating in multiple international organizations.[210] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958.[211] The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[212] The country was a founding member the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990.[213] Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.[214]

Military

[edit]
A fighter jet taking off from a runway
A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet in "special markings" used by the 2014 CF-18 Demonstration Team[215]

Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations.[216] The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"[217]—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.[218][d] In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) – placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.[220]

Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.[221] Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.[222] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,[223] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[223] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.[224] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, rather than directly through the UN.[225] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[226]

Economy

[edit]
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.[227]

Canada's mixed-market economy[228] is highly developed, ranking as the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP as of 2023, at approximately US$2.221 trillion.[229] The country is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[230] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[231] Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[231] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[231] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[232]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country.[233] The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.[234] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[235] It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023)[236] and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".[237] It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (19th in 2024).[238] Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom[239] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.[240] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[241] Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability[242] and foreign direct investment.[243] The unemployment rate in 2025 was 6.8 percent.[244]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[245] The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[246] Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[247] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.[248]

 
  Canada

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War.[250] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[251] As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.[249]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[252] Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas,[253] and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.[254] The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest.[255] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[256] Canada's main exports are zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[257] Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[258] The country's fishing and tourism industries are also a key contributor to the economy.[259]

Science and technology

[edit]

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.[260] As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine.[261] The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index,[262] and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[263] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with approximately 95 percent of its population aged 15 and above.[264]

The Canadian-built Space Shuttle robotic arm (left), referred to as Canadarm, transferred the P5 truss segment over to the Canadian-built space station robotic arm, referred to as Canadarm2.[265]

Canada's achievements in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[266] the discovery of insulin,[267] the development of the polio vaccine,[268] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[269] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[270] the development of the electron microscope,[271] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[272] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[273]

The Canadian Space Agency runs an active space program focused on deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, along with rockets and satellites.[274] Canada launched its first satellite, Alouette 1, in 1962.[275] It contributes to the International Space Station and is known for its robotic tools, such as multiple Canadarms.[276] Canada has initiated many long-term projects, including the Radarsat satellite series and the Black Brant rocket series.[277]

Demographics

[edit]
Canada population density map (2014)
Top left: The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely inhabited and heavily industrialized region.[278]

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[279] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.[280] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[281] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[282] driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification.[283] A record 483,390 immigrants were admitted in 2024.[284] Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.[285] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.[286]

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world,[279] with approximately 95 percent of the population residing south of the 55th parallel north.[287] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[288] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.[289] The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the 49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.[290] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[291]

The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.[292] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[292]

Largest metropolitan areas in Canada
 
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
1 Toronto Ontario 6,202,225 11 London Ontario 543,551
2 Montreal Quebec 4,291,732 12 Halifax Nova Scotia 465,703
3 Vancouver British Columbia 2,642,825 13 Niagara Region Ontario 433,604
4 Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,488,307 14 Windsor Ontario 422,630
5 Calgary Alberta 1,481,806 15 Oshawa Ontario 415,311
6 Edmonton Alberta 1,418,118 16 Victoria British Columbia 397,237
7 Quebec City Quebec 839,311 17 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 317,480
8 Winnipeg Manitoba 834,678 18 Regina Saskatchewan 249,217
9 Hamilton Ontario 785,184 19 Sherbrooke Quebec 227,398
10 Waterloo Region Ontario 575,847 20 Kelowna British Columbia 222,162

Ethnicity

[edit]

Respondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins".[294] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).[295] Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.[294]

The top 168 ethnic or cultural origins self-reported by Canadians in the 2021 census[296]

The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[e] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[299]

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[294] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million people, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[300] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[301][f] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent), Filipinos (960,000 2.6 percent), Arabs (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent), Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1 percent), West Asians (360,000; 1.0 percent), Koreans (220,000; 0.6 percent) and Japanese (99,000; 0.3 percent).[294]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[303] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[304] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[305] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[306]

Languages

[edit]
Percentage of the population who could conduct a conversation in English and French in 2021[307]

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.[292] Canada's official bilingualism policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-language minorities guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[308]

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.[309] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[310] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[311] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.[312]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[313] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[314] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[315] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.[316]

As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890).[292] The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[317] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[318] Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.[319]

Religion

[edit]
Freedom of religion sculpture by Marlene Hilton Moore at the McMurtry Gardens of Justice in Toronto[320]

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.[321] The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[322] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.[323]

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.[321] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[324] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[325] Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[326] they still believe in God.[327] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.[328]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population,[g] are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.[331] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).[329] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.[332]

Health

[edit]

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[333] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[334] and is universal.[335] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".[336] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[337] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[337] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.[338]

graph of expenditures as described in the caption
Health expenditure and financing by country. Total health expenditure per capita in US dollars (PPP).

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.[292] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[339] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[340] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[341] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes.[341] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[342] There are approximately 8 million people aged 15 and older with one or more disabilities in Canada.[343]

In 2024, the Canadian Institute for Health Information estimated that healthcare spending reached $372 billion, or 12.4 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[344] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD.[345] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[346] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[347] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[347] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,[348] and hospital capacity.[349]

Education

[edit]
Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021[350]

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[351] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government.[352] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[353] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[354] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[355] The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia.[356] The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.[357]

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[358] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[359] Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[360] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[361] As of 2022, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[362]

Culture

[edit]
Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto[363]

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.[364] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[365] Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected.[366] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people.[367] Canadian identity shifted from primarily British-based to multicultural between the 1960s and 1970s.[368]

The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments[369] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[370] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[371] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures with diverse areas and ethnic enclaves.[372]

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[373] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[374] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[375]

Symbols

[edit]
The Mother Beaver sculpture outside the House of Commons
The Mother Beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower.[376] The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—Tudor rose: English; fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and leek: Welsh.

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[377] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, northern climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[378] The use of the maple leaf as a symbol dates to the early 18th century in New France.[379] The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the arms of Canada.[380] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[381] The arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[382]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("from sea to sea"),[383] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[380] and, more recently, the Indigenous totem pole and Inuksuk.[384] Canadian cuisine items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and the Quebec dishes of poutine and tourtière, alongside material items such as tuques, canoes and Hudson's Bay point blanket are considered as uniquely Canadian.[385] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the coat of arms on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.[386] An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.[386]

Literature

[edit]
Author Margaret Atwood has suggested that during the 1970s Canadian literature was still looking for a national identity.[387]

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[388] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[389] This developed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality.[390] The evolution of Canadian literature is intricately linked to the country's historical and social contexts, often mirroring the challenges and changes in Canadian society.[391] As Canadian literature progressed into the 20th and 21st centuries, it began to address a broader array of subjects and themes, such as women's rights, LGBTQ rights, immigrant experiences, environmental issues, the relationship with Indigenous peoples, and Canadian values and identity.[392]

Financial support from governmental bodies, such as the Canada Council for the Arts and various provincial grant programs, facilitates the creation, publication, and promotion of works by Canadian authors.[393] Numerous Canadian authors have received international literary awards including the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Booker Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.[394] Canadian literary awards and prizes include the Governor General's Literary Awards, the Giller Prize, the Latner Griffin Writers' Trust Poetry Prize, the Burt Award for First Nations, Inuit and Métis Literature and several accolades for literature aimed at children.[395]

Visual arts

[edit]
Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset
The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada.[396]

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,[397] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[398] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[399] The Group of Seven is often considered the first uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting.[400] Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[401]

Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in early Canada, especially Quebec.[402] The Government of Canada has played a role in the development of art, through the department of Canadian Heritage by giving grants to art galleries,[403] as well as by establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts.[404] The Canada Council Art Bank also helps artists by buying and publicizing their work.[405] Great achievements in art in Canada are recognized through various awards and prizes, such as the Molson Prize, the Audain Prize for the Visual Arts, and the Governor General's Visual and Media Arts Awards.[406]

Music

[edit]
Original publication of "O Canada" in English, 1908 (French, 1880)[407]

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[408] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, music charts, and television music video channels.[409] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[410] As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,[411] producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles.[412] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[413] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards.[414]: 127 The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[415]

"God Save the King" has been used in Canada since the late 1700s and is the country's de facto royal anthem.[416] Patriotic music by Canadians dates back over 200 years, with "The Bold Canadian", written in 1812, popular throughout the 19th century.[417] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was popular and served as an unofficial national anthem of English Canada.[418] "O Canada", originally composed in French in 1880, also served as an unofficial national anthem during the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.[407]

Media

[edit]
A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized.[419] The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".[420] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[421] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[414]: 59

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[422] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[423] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[424]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[425] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[426] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[427]

Sports

[edit]
Our Game sculpture by Edie Parker outside the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto[428]

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[429] Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and football.[430] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.[431]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[432] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, three Major League Soccer teams, and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada.[433] Canadians identified hockey as their preferred sport for viewing, followed by soccer and then basketball.[434]

In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023.[435] This was closely followed by cycling (33 percent) and running (27 percent).[435] The popularity of specific sports varies;[436] in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey (the most popular young adult team sport),[435] skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),[437] tennis or basketball.[435] Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[438]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics[439]—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,[440] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[441] the 2010 Winter Olympics,[442] the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup,[443] the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games.[444] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.[445]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ English: /ˈkænədə/ ,[8] French: [kanada]
  2. ^ 6,416 km (3,987 mi) via the contiguous 48 states and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) via Alaska[120]
  3. ^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[156] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."[157]
  4. ^ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[219]
  5. ^ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[297] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[298]
  6. ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[302]
  7. ^ Catholic Church (29.9%), United Church (3.3%), Anglican Church (3.1%), Eastern Orthodoxy (1.7%), Baptistism (1.2%), Pentecostalism and other Charismatic (1.1%) Anabaptist (0.4%), Jehovah's Witness (0.4%), Latter Day Saints (0.2%), Lutheran (0.9%), Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) (0.3%), Presbyterian (0.8%), and Reformed (0.2%).[329] 7.6 percent simply identified as "Christians".[330]

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Further reading

[edit]

Overview

Culture

Demography and statistics

Economy

Foreign relations and military

Geography and environment

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60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

 

 

Halifax
Halifax Regional Municipality
Flag of Halifax
 
Motto(s): 
"E Mari Merces" (Latin)
"From the Sea, Wealth"
Location in Nova Scotia
Location in Nova Scotia
Halifax is located in Canada
Halifax
Halifax
Location in Canada
Coordinates: 44°38′51″N 63°35′26″W / 44.64750°N 63.59056°W / 44.64750; -63.59056[1]
Country Canada
Province Nova Scotia
Town 1749
City 1842
Regional municipality April 1, 1996
Named after George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax
Government
 
 • Type Regional municipality
 • Mayor Andy Fillmore
 • Governing body Halifax Regional Council
 • MPs
List of MPs
 • MLAs
Area
 
 • Regional municipality
5,475.57 km2 (2,114.13 sq mi)
 • Urban
 
238.29 km2 (92.00 sq mi)
 • Metro
 
7,276.22 km2 (2,809.36 sq mi)
Highest elevation
 
241.9 m (793.6 ft)
Lowest elevation
 
0 m (0 ft)
Population
 (2021)[2][3][4]
 • Regional municipality
439,819 (13th)
 • Density 80.3/km2 (208/sq mi)
 • Urban
 
348,634
 • Urban density 1,463.1/km2 (3,789/sq mi)
 • Metro
 
465,703 (12th)
 • Metro density 64/km2 (170/sq mi)
 • Change 2016–2021
 
Increase9.1%
 • Census ranking
 
13 of 5,162
Demonym Haligonian
Gross Metropolitan Product
 
 • Halifax CMA CA$24.4 billion (2020) [5]
Time zone UTC−04:00 (AST)
 • Summer (DST) UTC−03:00 (ADT)
Postal code span
B0J, B3A to B4G
Area codes 902, 782
Website www.halifax.ca Edit this at Wikidata
 

Halifax, officially the Halifax Regional Municipality (HRM), is the capital and most populous municipality of the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, and the most populous municipality in Atlantic Canada. It consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996: Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and Halifax County.

Halifax is an economic centre of Atlantic Canada, home to a concentration of government offices and private companies. Major employers include the Department of National Defence, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia Health Authority, Saint Mary's University, the Halifax Shipyard, various levels of government, and the Port of Halifax. Resource industries found in rural areas of the municipality include agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry, and natural gas extraction. As of 2024, it is estimated that the population of the Halifax CMA was 530,167,[6] with 348,634 people in its urban area.[3]

Etymology

[edit]

The area was called "Chebucto" until Halifax was established by Governor Edward Cornwallis in 1749, named in honour of George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax.[7][8] The Mi'kmaq name for the harbour around which Halifax exists is K'jipuktuk[9] or Chebookt,[a] meaning "Chief Harbour" or "Great Harbour" in the Mi'kmaq language.[7][11] Additionally, the Mi'kmaq referred to the area of the Halifax Peninsula comprising the downtown area and Point Pleasant Park as Amntu'kati,[12] while the hillside where Halifax was established was referred to as Gooowakade, meaning "place of many pines".[10]

History

[edit]

Before the mid-1700s, when a European (British) settlement was established at Halifax, the Colony of Nova Scotia had been administered from Annapolis Royal, near the Western opening of the Bay of Fundy. However, in 1749, King George II ordered Edward Cornwallis to establish Halifax as a new capital. Equipped with 13 transports and a sloop of war, Cornwallis founded the Town of Halifax on what is now known as the Halifax Peninsula, on June 21, 1749.[13]

The establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutre's War. By unilaterally establishing Halifax, the British were violating treaties with the Mi'kmaq (1726) that were signed after Father Rale's War.[14] Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families. To protect the new Protestant settlements from Mi'kmaq, Acadian, and French attacks, British fortifications were erected in Halifax (Citadel Hill, 1749), Bedford (Fort Sackville, 1749), Dartmouth (1750), and Lawrencetown (1754), all areas within the modern-day Municipality.

The community of St. Margaret's Bay, also in the Municipality, was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia, who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, during the American Revolution.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Halifax grew to become a centre of government (particularly military), trade, and shipbuilding. The completion of the Intercolonial Railway in 1876 helped make Halifax a major gateway for Atlantic trade—particularly in winter, when ice made ports on the St. Lawrence River inaccessible.

This connection to trans-Atlantic trade and military enterprises bore deadly consequences on December 6, 1917. In one of the great disasters in Canadian history, the SS Mont-Blanc, a French cargo ship carrying munitions, collided with the Belgian Relief vessel SS Imo in "The Narrows" between upper Halifax Harbour and Bedford Basin. The resulting Halifax Explosion devastated the Richmond District in the North End of Halifax, killing about 2,000 people and injuring nearly 9,000 others.[15] The blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons.[16] Aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities.

In addition to the capital City of Halifax (on the western side of the harbour), the City of Dartmouth (eastern side) and the Town of Bedford (northern tip of the Bedford Basin) grew up through the 19th and 20th centuries. Halifax County was originally understood as a higher-level geographic unit responsible for, among other things, court services throughout both the incorporated Cities and Town, and the unorganized territory of the remainder of the county. However, by the mid-20th century, this structure had evolved such that "the County" was a distinct municipality including only the areas that were not included within the Cities and Town.

These four municipalities (City of Halifax, City of Dartmouth, Town of Bedford, Halifax County) coordinated delivery of some services through a body known as the Metropolitan Authority starting in the late 1970s, but remained independent municipal bodies until April 1, 1996, when the provincial government amalgamated all municipal governments within Halifax County to create the Halifax Regional Municipality. Thus, the modern municipal boundary now includes all of Halifax County except for several Mi'kmaq reserves.[17]

Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality (HRM), but "Halifax" has remained in common usage for brevity. In April 2014, the Regional Council approved a new brand identity for the region, under which the name "Halifax" is used for marketing and communications purposes; "Halifax Regional Municipality" remains the region's official name.[18][19][20]

Geography

[edit]

Climate

[edit]

Halifax has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm summers and relatively mild winters, which is due to Gulf Stream moderation. The weather is usually milder in the winter or cooler in the summer than areas at similar latitudes inland, with the temperature remaining (with occasional notable exceptions) between about −8 and 28 °C (18 and 82 °F).[21] January is the coldest month, being the only month with a high that is slightly below freezing at −0.1 °C (31.8 °F), while August is the warmest. The sea heavily influences the climate of the area, causing significant seasonal lag in summer, with August being significantly warmer than June and with September being the third mildest month in terms of mean temperature.[22]

Hurricane Juan, a category 2 storm, hit in September 2003 and caused considerable damage to the region. Hurricane Earl grazed the coast as a category 1 storm in 2010. In 2019, Hurricane Dorian made landfall just south of Halifax as a post-tropical storm with an intensity equivalent to a category 2 hurricane and caused significant damage across Nova Scotia. In 2021 Hurricane Ida hit the region with minor damage. In 2022, Hurricane Fiona hit as a category 2 storm, although damage was relatively minor in Halifax, with downed trees and widespread power outages for days.[23]

The highest temperature ever recorded in Halifax was 37.2 °C (99.0 °F) on July 10, 1912,[24] and the lowest temperature recorded was −29.4 °C (−20.9 °F) on February 18, 1922.[25] In spite of the possibility of high temperatures, in a normal year there are only three days that go above 30 °C (86 °F).[26] Halifax also has a modest frost count by Canadian standards due to the maritime influence, averaging 131 air frosts and 49 full days below freezing annually.[26] On average the frost-free period is 182 days, ranging from May 1 to October 31.[26]

Climate data for Halifax (Citadel Hill)
Climate ID: 8202220; coordinates
44°39′N 63°35′W / 44.650°N 63.583°W / 44.650; -63.583 (Citadel Hill); elevation: 70.1 m (230 ft); 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1863–present[b]
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 14.0
(57.2)
16.0
(60.8)
28.2
(82.8)
28.3
(82.9)
33.3
(91.9)
35.3
(95.5)
37.2
(99.0)
34.4
(93.9)
34.6
(94.3)
31.1
(88.0)
23.3
(73.9)
16.7
(62.1)
37.2
(99.0)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −0.1
(31.8)
0.4
(32.7)
3.6
(38.5)
8.7
(47.7)
14.4
(57.9)
19.6
(67.3)
23.1
(73.6)
23.1
(73.6)
19.3
(66.7)
13.4
(56.1)
8.1
(46.6)
2.8
(37.0)
11.4
(52.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) −4.1
(24.6)
−3.6
(25.5)
−0.2
(31.6)
4.9
(40.8)
10.1
(50.2)
15.2
(59.4)
18.8
(65.8)
19.1
(66.4)
15.5
(59.9)
9.9
(49.8)
4.8
(40.6)
−0.8
(30.6)
7.5
(45.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −8.2
(17.2)
−7.5
(18.5)
−3.9
(25.0)
1.0
(33.8)
5.8
(42.4)
10.7
(51.3)
14.4
(57.9)
15.1
(59.2)
11.8
(53.2)
6.4
(43.5)
1.5
(34.7)
−4.3
(24.3)
3.6
(38.5)
Record low °C (°F) −27.2
(−17.0)
−29.4
(−20.9)
−23.3
(−9.9)
−13.9
(7.0)
−5.0
(23.0)
0.0
(32.0)
4.4
(39.9)
3.9
(39.0)
−1.7
(28.9)
−7.2
(19.0)
−15.6
(3.9)
−25.6
(−14.1)
−29.4
(−20.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 139.7
(5.50)
110.1
(4.33)
132.5
(5.22)
118.3
(4.66)
119.1
(4.69)
111.8
(4.40)
110.3
(4.34)
96.4
(3.80)
108.9
(4.29)
124.3
(4.89)
151.4
(5.96)
145.1
(5.71)
1,468.1
(57.80)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 96.7
(3.81)
75.1
(2.96)
101.3
(3.99)
111.3
(4.38)
118.4
(4.66)
111.8
(4.40)
110.3
(4.34)
96.4
(3.80)
108.9
(4.29)
124.1
(4.89)
143.6
(5.65)
115.9
(4.56)
1,313.9
(51.73)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 43.1
(17.0)
35.0
(13.8)
31.2
(12.3)
7.0
(2.8)
0.8
(0.3)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.1
(0.0)
7.8
(3.1)
29.2
(11.5)
154.2
(60.7)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm) 13.8 11.6 13.1 15.2 15.8 13.6 12.1 11.1 11.7 14.1 15.3 14.5 161.8
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm) 8.5 6.5 10.2 14.1 15.7 13.6 12.1 11.1 11.7 14.1 14.5 10.8 142.7
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm) 6.8 6.1 4.1 1.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.2 5.2 25.3
Mean monthly sunshine hours 109.5 127.2 142.8 156.6 193.3 220.7 235.2 226.6 180.5 157.8 107.4 105.2 1,962.5
Percentage possible sunshine 38.2 43.3 38.7 38.8 42.1 47.5 49.9 52.1 47.9 46.2 37.2 38.2 43.3
Average ultraviolet index 1 2 3 5 6 8 8 7 5 3 2 1 4
Source 1: Environment and Climate Change Canada (Sunshine data recorded at CFB Shearwater)[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
Source 2: Nova Scotian Institute of Science[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42] and Weather Atlas[43]
Climate data for Halifax Stanfield International Airport
WMO ID: 71395; coordinates
44°52′48″N 63°30′00″W / 44.88000°N 63.50000°W / 44.88000; -63.50000 (Halifax Stanfield International Airport); elevation: 145.4 m (477 ft); 1991−2020 normals, extremes 1953−present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high humidex 18.8 18.3 29.3 32.1 36.0 42.0 42.4 41.9 42.1 33.0 25.4 20.9 42.4
Record high °C (°F) 14.8
(58.6)
17.5
(63.5)
27.2
(81.0)
29.5
(85.1)
32.8
(91.0)
34.3
(93.7)
33.9
(93.0)
35.0
(95.0)
34.2
(93.6)
29.4
(84.9)
21.5
(70.7)
16.6
(61.9)
35.0
(95.0)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −1.2
(29.8)
−0.6
(30.9)
3.5
(38.3)
9.2
(48.6)
15.5
(59.9)
20.5
(68.9)
24.2
(75.6)
24.2
(75.6)
20.0
(68.0)
13.7
(56.7)
7.6
(45.7)
2.1
(35.8)
11.6
(52.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −5.7
(21.7)
−5.2
(22.6)
−0.9
(30.4)
4.5
(40.1)
10.1
(50.2)
15.2
(59.4)
19.2
(66.6)
19.2
(66.6)
15.2
(59.4)
9.2
(48.6)
3.8
(38.8)
−1.9
(28.6)
6.9
(44.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −10.1
(13.8)
−9.7
(14.5)
−5.4
(22.3)
−0.3
(31.5)
4.6
(40.3)
9.8
(49.6)
14.2
(57.6)
14.1
(57.4)
10.2
(50.4)
4.7
(40.5)
0.0
(32.0)
−5.8
(21.6)
2.2
(36.0)
Record low °C (°F) −28.5
(−19.3)
−27.3
(−17.1)
−22.4
(−8.3)
−12.8
(9.0)
−4.4
(24.1)
−0.8
(30.6)
6.1
(43.0)
4.4
(39.9)
−0.8
(30.6)
−6.7
(19.9)
−13.1
(8.4)
−23.3
(−9.9)
−28.5
(−19.3)
Record low wind chill −40.4 −41.1 −33.9 −24.4 −10.6 −4.0 0.0 0.0 −3.0 −10.1 −23.9 −35.6 −41.1
Average precipitation mm (inches) 125.9
(4.96)
111.0
(4.37)
120.2
(4.73)
106.4
(4.19)
109.7
(4.32)
89.8
(3.54)
86.7
(3.41)
90.5
(3.56)
107.3
(4.22)
139.8
(5.50)
159.1
(6.26)
146.9
(5.78)
1,393.3
(54.85)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 78.6
(3.09)
70.7
(2.78)
89.0
(3.50)
90.4
(3.56)
108.2
(4.26)
89.8
(3.54)
86.7
(3.41)
90.5
(3.56)
107.3
(4.22)
139.2
(5.48)
145.4
(5.72)
106.8
(4.20)
1,202.4
(47.34)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 53.9
(21.2)
44.3
(17.4)
34.4
(13.5)
16.6
(6.5)
2.1
(0.8)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.6
(0.2)
19.4
(7.6)
44.1
(17.4)
215.2
(84.7)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm) 18.7 15.2 14.6 14.6 13.5 12.2 11.0 10.8 10.1 12.8 14.6 16.9 164.8
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm) 8.0 6.2 8.7 12.0 13.1 12.2 11.0 10.8 10.1 12.8 12.5 9.8 127.4
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm) 14.4 12.1 8.8 5.3 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.7 11.0 56.0
Average relative humidity (%) (at 15:00 LST) 74.1 67.7 63.9 61.4 60.8 62.0 63.3 62.2 64.5 67.5 73.6 77.0 66.5
Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada[44][45][46][47]

 

Metropolitan landscape

[edit]

As of the 2021 Canadian Census, the Halifax Census Metropolitan Area includes all of Halifax County, together with the Municipality of East Hants. The total land area of this metropolitan area is 727,622 hectares (7,276.22 square kilometres; 2,809.36 square miles)[48]

In Canada, metro areas include neighbouring municipalities where more than half of the commuters commute into the core municipality. Between the 2016 Canadian Census and the 2021 Canadian Census, East Hants, a formerly rural, but increasingly exurban community located north of the main Halifax population centre, was added to the Halifax metro area, due to the increased population who commute from East Hants to Halifax. Before the 2021 Canadian Census, Metropolitan Halifax covered 549,631 hectares (5,496.31 square kilometres; 2,122.14 square miles)[49] After the addition of the East Hants, the metropolitan area's land area expanded by 177,991 hectares (1,779.91 km2) to its current land area.[48]

Municipal landscape

[edit]

Since 1 April 1996, the entirety of the County of Halifax and all its places (cities, suburbs, towns, and villages) were turned into communities of a larger single-tier municipality called Halifax Regional Municipality. As of 2021, the total surface area of the municipality is 5,475.57 km2 (2,114.13 sq mi).[2]

Regional Centre

[edit]

There are varying definitions of the "core" of Halifax. For planning purposes, the Municipality defines the "Regional Centre" as including the Halifax Peninsula and Dartmouth inside the Circumferential Highway. This urban area covers 3,300 hectares (33 square kilometres; 13 square miles)[50] and houses 96,619 people in 55,332 dwelling units as of the 2016 Census.[51]

Communities and neighbourhoods

[edit]

There are over 200 official communities and neighbourhoods within the Halifax municipality. The former town of Bedford, and the former cities of Dartmouth and Halifax have maintained their original geographic names. Furthermore, some communities that were suburban, or even rural before 1996, now have become more urban and have attained community status (e.g. Cole Harbour, Lower Sackville, Spryfield, etc.)[52]

Urban landscape

[edit]
View of Purdy's Wharf, an office complex in Downtown Halifax

At 23,829 hectares (238.29 square kilometres; 92.00 square miles), Halifax's urban area (defined as population centre by Statistics Canada) is less than five percent of the municipal land area.[53] The area surrounds Halifax Harbour and its main centres are Bedford, Dartmouth, and Halifax (and their respective environs).

Between the 2016 Canadian Census and the 2021 Canadian Census, the built-up area of Halifax grew by 357 hectares (3.57 km2) from 23,472 hectares (234.72 km2) in 2016[54] to 23,829 hectares (238.29 km2) in 2021.[53]

Culture

[edit]
The Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, the largest art gallery in Atlantic Canada

Halifax is a major cultural centre within the Atlantic provinces. The municipality has maintained many of its maritime and military traditions, while opening itself to a growing multicultural population. The municipality's urban core also benefits from a large population of post-secondary students who strongly influence the local cultural scene. Halifax has a number of art galleries, theatres and museums, as well as most of the region's national-quality sports and entertainment facilities. Halifax is also the home to many of the region's major cultural attractions, such as Halifax Pop Explosion, Symphony Nova Scotia, the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, The Khyber, the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic and the Neptune Theatre.[citation needed]

The new Halifax Central Library on Spring Garden Road has received accolades for its architecture including the Governor General's Medal in Architecture and was described by Canadian Architect as "the most significant public building completed in the Nova Scotia capital in over a generation, and a new cultural hub for the region".[55]

Architecture

[edit]
The Halifax Town Clock overlooks most of downtown Halifax.

Halifax's urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. Downtown office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock.[citation needed]

Public spaces

[edit]
Halifax Public Gardens, a Victorian era public garden that was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1984

The Halifax area has a variety of public spaces, ranging from urban gardens, public squares, expansive forested parks, and historic sites. The original grid plan devised when Halifax was founded in 1749 included a central military parade square, the Grand Parade. The square hosts the City Hall at one end, and is a popular site for concerts, political demonstrations, as well as the annual Remembrance Day ceremony at the central cenotaph. Another popular downtown public space is the timber Halifax Boardwalk, which stretches approximately 3 km (1.9 mi) and is integrated with several squares and monuments.[citation needed]

The Halifax Common, granted for the use of citizens in 1763, is Canada's oldest public park.[56] Centrally located on the Halifax Peninsula, the wide fields are a popular location for sports. The slopes of Citadel Hill, overlooking downtown, are favoured by sunbathers and kite-flyers. The Halifax Public Gardens, a short walk away, are Victorian era public gardens formally established in 1867 and designated a National Historic Site in 1984. Victoria Park, across the street, contains various monuments and statues erected by the North British Society, as well as a fountain. In contrast to the urban parks, the expansive Point Pleasant Park at the southern tip of the peninsula is heavily forested and contains the remains of numerous British fortifications.[citation needed]

An elm tree in Halifax Public Gardens

Located on the opposite side of the harbour, the Dartmouth Commons is a large park next to Downtown Dartmouth laid out in the 1700s. It is home to the Leighton Dillman gardens and various sports grounds. Nearby, the Dartmouth waterfront trail stretches from Downtown Dartmouth to Woodside. Among residents of central Dartmouth, the area around Sullivan's Pond and Lake Banook is popular for strolling and paddling. The forested Shubie Park, through which the historic Shubenacadie Canal runs, is a major park in suburban Dartmouth.[citation needed]

Mainland Halifax is home to several significant parks, including Sir Sandford Fleming Park, gifted to the people of Halifax by Sir Sandford Fleming. It houses the Dingle Tower, dedicated in 1912 by the Duke of Connaught to commemorate 150 years of representative government in Nova Scotia. The Mainland Common, in Clayton Park, is a modern park home to various sports and community facilities. Long Lake Provincial Park, comprising more than 2,000 hectares, was designated in 1984 and affords Halifax residents access to a scenic wilderness in close proximity to the urban communities.[57]

Tourism

[edit]
The community of Peggys Cove, a major tourist attraction

Halifax's tourism industry showcases Nova Scotia's culture, scenery and coastline. There are several museums and art galleries in downtown Halifax. The Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21, an immigrant entry point prominent throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, was opened to the public as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1999 and is the only national museum in the Atlantic provinces. The Maritime Museum of the Atlantic is a maritime museum containing extensive galleries including a large exhibit on the famous Titanic, over 70 small craft and a 200-foot (61 m) steamship CSS Acadia. In summertime the preserved World War II corvette HMCS Sackville operates as a museum ship and Canada's naval memorial. The Art Gallery of Nova Scotia is housed in a 150-year-old building containing nearly 19,000 works of art.[58] The Black Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia in Dartmouth reflects the region's rich ethnic heritage.

The Halifax Boardwalk, a public footpath along Halifax Harbour

Halifax has numerous National Historic Sites, most notably Citadel Hill (Fort George). Just outside the urban area, the iconic Peggys Cove is internationally recognized and receives more than 600,000 visitors a year.[59]

The waterfront in Downtown Halifax is the site of the Halifax Harbourwalk, a 3-kilometre (2 mi) boardwalk popular among tourists and locals alike. Many mid-sized ships dock here at one of the many wharfs. The harbourwalk is home to a Halifax Transit ferry terminal, hundreds of stores, Historic Properties, several office buildings, the Casino Nova Scotia, and several public squares where buskers perform, most prominently at the annual Halifax International Busker Festival every August.[citation needed]

Cruise ships visit the province frequently. In 2015, the Port of Halifax welcomed 141 vessel calls with 222,309 passengers.[60][better source needed]

Media

[edit]
Headquarters of The Chronicle Herald, a daily newspaper published in Halifax

Halifax is the Atlantic region's central point for radio broadcast and press media. CBC Television, CTV Television Network (CTV), and Global Television Network and other broadcasters all have important regional television concentrators in the municipality. CBC Radio has a major regional studio and there are also regional hubs for Rogers Radio and various private broadcast franchises, as well as a regional bureau for The Canadian Press/Broadcast News.[citation needed]

Halifax's print media is centred on its single daily newspaper, the broadsheet Chronicle Herald as well as two free newspapers, the daily commuter-oriented edition of Metro International and the free alternative arts weekly The Coast.[citation needed]

Halifax has several online daily newspapers. allNovaScotia is a daily, subscriber-only outlet which focuses on business and political news from across the province.[61] CityNews Halifax, associated with the CJNI-FM radio station, was created from a merger of the former News 95.7 and HalifaxToday (previously Local Xpress) news websites. The Halifax Examiner was founded by the former news editor of The Coast in 2014 and, like allNovaScotia, is supported through subscriptions.

From 1974 to 2008, Halifax had a second daily newspaper, the tabloid The Daily News, which still publishes several neighbourhood weekly papers such as The Bedford-Sackville Weekly News, The Halifax West-Clayton Park Weekly News and the Dartmouth-Cole Harbour Weekly News. These weekly papers compete with The Chronicle-Herald's weekly Community Heralds HRM West, HRM East, and HRM North.[citation needed]

Sports

[edit]
The Scotiabank Centre, the largest multi-purpose sporting arena in Atlantic Canada

Halifax is represented by four professional sports teams, with teams in the National Lacrosse League (NLL), the Canadian Premier League (CPL), the Northern Super League (NSL) and The Basketball League (TBL). The Halifax Mooseheads play in the Quebec Maritimes Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), which is part of the Canadian Hockey League (CHL). It is also home to four universities that have athletic programmes.

Halifax's major sports venues include the Scotiabank Centre (formerly the Metro Centre[62]), the Halifax Forum, the Wanderers Grounds and various university sports facilities, such as Huskies Stadium.

Professional and semi-professional sports

[edit]
Halifax Mooseheads prepare for a 2012 semi-final game.

Halifax is home to the Halifax Mooseheads, the semi-professional major junior hockey club of the Quebec Maritimes Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). Founded in 1994, the Mooseheads were the first team from Atlantic Canada to join the QMJHL. They began play in the league's Dilio Division in the 1994–95 season,[63] In 2013, the Mooseheads capped a 74-win season (74–7–3–1[64]) with a QMJHL's President's Cup championship. While hosting the tournament, the Mooseheads also won the CHL's 2013 Memorial Cup.[65] They have appeared in the President's Cup Finals four more times: 2003, 2005, 2019 and 2023. They hosted the Memorial Cup tournaments two more times in 2000 and 2019.

The Halifax Thunderbirds became the city's National Lacrosse League team in September 2018, when it moved from Rochester.[66] On March 12, 2020, their inaugural season was cut short by the COVID-19 pandemic.[67] Still, the team received two league awards: Defensive Player of the Year and Executive of the Year.[68][69] In the 2021–2022 season, they reached their first playoffs, where they were defeated by the Toronto Rock 14–13 in overtime[70] in the conference semi-final.

Canadian Premier League action in June 2019

In 2019, HFX Wanderers FC debuted as an expansion club in the Canadian Premier League (CPL)—Canada's professional men's soccer league.[71] In 2025, Halifax Tides FC debuted as a founding member of the Northern Super League (NSL), a newly established professional women's soccer league.[72]

The Halifax Hoopers began play in The Basketball League in 2025, returning professional basketball to the area after the closure of the Halifax Hurricanes.[73]

Halifax has been a recurring subject of proposed expansion teams in the Canadian Football League; the Atlantic Schooners were proposed in the 1980s as a Halifax-based expansion team that would play out of Dartmouth, but folded after failing to secure funding for a stadium.[74] A second attempt at the Schooners was pursued by an ownership group known as Schooners Sports and Entertainment in the 2010s; in an effort to gauge interest in the franchise, the group hosted the neutral-site Touchdown Atlantic game at Huskies Stadium in 2023, marking the first regular-season CFL game played in Halifax.[75] The Schooners Sports and Entertainment bid also collapsed, after the ownership group was unable to secure a deal for a stadium in Dartmouth.[76][77]

Current professional/semi-professional sports teams in Halifax
Club League Sport Venue Established Championships
Halifax Mooseheads QMJHL Major Junior Hockey Scotiabank Centre 1994 1 (last in 2013)
Halifax Thunderbirds NLL Box Lacrosse Scotiabank Centre 2019 0
HFX Wanderers FC CPL Men's Soccer Wanderers Grounds 2018 0
Halifax Tides FC NSL Women's Soccer Wanderers Grounds 2024 0
Halifax Hoopers TBL Basketball Zatzman Sportsplex 2025 0

Former professional teams

[edit]

The city had a team in the National Basketball League of Canada (NBL Canada) called the Halifax Hurricanes. The team succeeded the Halifax Rainmen who had previously played in the American Basketball Association and Premier Basketball League before joining the NBL Canada and later declaring bankruptcy in July 2015.[78] The Hurricanes won the NBL Canada championship in their inaugural season. The Hurricanes have since ceased operations.[79]

Between 1971 and 1993, Halifax was home to three teams in the American Hockey League. The Nova Scotia Voyageurs (Montreal Canadiens affiliate), the Nova Scotia Oilers (Edmonton Oilers affiliate) and finally, the Halifax Citadels (Quebec Nordiques affiliate) played from 1971 to 1984, 1984 to 1988, and 1988 to 1993, respectively.[citation needed]

The Nova Scotia Clippers were a team in the original Canadian Soccer League (1987–1992) for its 1991 season.

The Halifax Crescents, an amateur and later, professional ice hockey team challenged for the Stanley Cup in 1900 but lost to the Montreal Shamrocks.[citation needed]

University sports

[edit]
Huskies Stadium in 2018

Halifax is home to seven degree-granting post-secondary educational institutions with four of them having athletic programmes. Two of the schools, Dalhousie University and Saint Mary's University are part of the U Sports league, while Mount Saint Vincent University and University of King's College are a part of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA).[citation needed]

Dalhousie University's varsity team goes by the moniker Tigers. They have teams for basketball, hockey, soccer, swimming, track and field, cross country running, and volleyball. The Tigers garnered a number of championships in the first decade of the 20th century, winning 63 AUS championships and two U Sports championships.[80]

Halifax's other U Sports university, located in close proximity to Dalhousie University, is Saint Mary's University with the moniker of the Huskies. Known for their football programme, the Huskies play at Huskies Stadium and won back-to-back Canadian University Football Championships (2001 & 2002), only the third university to do so.[81]

Finally, two of Halifax's smaller universities are part of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA). Mount Saint Vincent University, home to the Mystics, competes in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association (ACAA), a member of the CCAA, in Women's & Men's Basketball, Women's & Men's Soccer, Cross Country and Women's Volleyball.[82] The Mystics hold a championship titles in all sports, making them the most acclaimed team of the ACAA division. University of King's College is also a member of the ACAA. The varsity athletics teams at the University of King's College are named the Blue Devils.[83] Sporting teams include men's and women's basketball, soccer, badminton and rugby, and women's volleyball.[84]

From 1984 to 2007, the region was home to the CIS Men's Basketball Championship; the tournament was moved to Ottawa, Ontario, from 2008 to 2010 and returned to Halifax in 2011 and 2012.

Events

[edit]

Over the past several decades, Halifax has hosted many major sporting events, including the following:

Halifax was selected in 2006 as the host municipality in Canada's bid for the 2014 Commonwealth Games but withdrew on March 8, 2007, citing ballooning costs from final estimates of $1.7 billion up from $785 million.[85]

Demographics

[edit]

Halifax CMA

[edit]

At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Halifax CMA had a population of 465,703 living in 201,138 of its 211,789 total private dwellings, a change of 9.1% from its 2016 population of 426,932. With a land area of 7,276.22 km2 (2,809.36 sq mi), it had a population density of 64.0/km2 (165.8/sq mi) in 2021.[86]

Halifax Regional Municipality

[edit]
Historical populations
Year Pop. ±%
1851 39,914 —    
1861 49,021 +22.8%
1871 56,963 +16.2%
1881 67,917 +19.2%
1891 71,358 +5.1%
1901 74,662 +4.6%
1911 80,257 +7.5%
1921 97,228 +21.1%
1931 100,204 +3.1%
1941 122,656 +22.4%
1951 162,217 +32.3%
1961 225,723 +39.1%
1971 261,461 +15.8%
1981 288,126 +10.2%
1991 332,518 +15.4%
1996 342,966 +3.1%
2001 359,183 +4.7%
2006 372,858 +3.8%
2011 390,096 +4.6%
2016 403,131 +3.3%
2021 439,819 +9.1%
Prior to 1996, the figures are for Halifax County. From 1996 onwards, the figures are for Halifax Regional Municipality.
Source: Statistics Canada

In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Halifax Regional Municipality had a population of 439,819 living in 190,512 of its 200,473 total private dwellings, a change of 9.1% from its 2016 population of 403,131. With a land area of 5,475.57 km2 (2,114.13 sq mi), it had a population density of 80.3/km2 (208.0/sq mi) in 2021.[2]

The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 50,595 persons or 12.6% of the total population of Halifax. Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were United Kingdom (6,345 persons or 12.5%), India (4,785 persons or 9.5%), China (3,740 persons or 7.4%), United States of America (3,545 persons or 7.0%), Philippines (3,415 persons or 6.7%), Syria (2,085 persons or 4.1%), Nigeria (1,625 persons or 3.2%), Lebanon (1,340 persons or 2.6%), South Korea (1,020 persons or 2.0%), and Iran (980 persons or 1.9%).[87]

Ethnicity

[edit]
Panethnic groups in the Regional Municipality of Halifax (2001−2021)
Panethnic
group
2021[87] 2016[88] 2011[89] 2006[90] 2001[91]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
European[c] 345,735 79.43% 336,375 84.65% 339,705 88.39% 336,395 91.1% 327,325 91.98%
African 20,565 4.72% 15,085 3.8% 13,780 3.59% 13,270 3.59% 13,080 3.68%
South Asian 16,765 3.85% 6,555 1.65% 3,995 1.04% 2,900 0.79% 2,345 0.66%
Indigenous 16,615 3.82% 15,735 3.96% 9,585 2.49% 5,230 1.42% 3,460 0.97%
East Asian[d] 12,895 2.96% 8,690 2.19% 5,755 1.5% 4,135 1.12% 3,255 0.91%
Middle Eastern[e] 11,160 2.56% 8,725 2.2% 6,730 1.75% 4,510 1.22% 3,360 0.94%
Southeast Asian[f] 6,345 1.46% 3,440 0.87% 2,220 0.58% 1,185 0.32% 1,195 0.34%
Latin American 2,255 0.52% 1,210 0.3% 1,025 0.27% 695 0.19% 415 0.12%
Other/Multiracial[g] 2,965 0.68% 1,585 0.4% 1,535 0.4% 960 0.26% 1,440 0.4%
Total responses 435,290 98.97% 397,395 98.58% 384,330 98.52% 369,265 99.08% 355,870 99.1%
Total population 439,819 100% 403,131 100% 390,096 100% 372,679 100% 359,111 100%
Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses

Language

[edit]

Mother tongue language (2021)[92]

Rank Language Population Pct (%)
1 English 380,140 86.43%
2 French 13,920 3.16%
3 Arabic 8,595 1.95%
4 Mandarin 6,355 1.44%
5 Punjabi 3,755 0.85%
6 Tagalog 2,930 0.66%
7 Hindi 2,485 0.56%
8 Spanish 2,295 0.52%
9 Korean 2,215 0.50%
10 Russian 1,655 0.37%

Religion

[edit]
St. Paul's Church

St. Paul's Church is the oldest Christian church in Halifax. Halifax is a religiously diverse municipality, and has several landmark religious institutions:[93]

Halifax also houses the Atlantic School of Theology for religious studies.

Religion (2021)[92]

Religion Population Percentage (%)
Buddhism 2,195 0.5
Christianity 231,255 53.12
Hinduism 6,840 1.57
Indigenous Spirituality 210 0.04
Irreligion 173,005 39.74
Islam 13,220 3.03
Judaism 1,750 0.4
Sikhism 3,495 0.8
Other religions and spiritual religions 3,315 0.76

Halifax urban area

[edit]
Historical urban area population
Year Pop. ±%
1996 270,047 —    
2001 276,221 +2.3%
2006 282,924 +2.4%
2011 304,979 +7.8%
2016 317,334 +4.1%
2021 348,634 +9.9%
Before 1996, figures were from Halifax County. After 1996, figures onwards are for Halifax Regional Municipality.
Source: [94][95][96][97][98]

As of 2021, the population centre (urban area) of Halifax housed 348,634 people living in 154,883 of its 162,336 total private dwellings.[3] The human population density of Halifax's population centre was approximately 1,463.1/km2 (3,789.3/sq mi).[3]

Between 2016 and 2021, the urban area (population centre) and municipal areas experienced strong growth. Over that time-frame; the municipality added 36,688 people (an increase of over 9.1%), and the urban area (population centre) added 31,300 people (an increase of over 9.8%).

Economy

[edit]

The urban area of Halifax is a major economic centre in eastern Canada with a large concentration of government services and private sector companies. Halifax serves as the business, banking, government and cultural centre for the Maritime region. The largest employment sectors within the municipality include trade (36,400 jobs), health care and social assistance (31,800 jobs), professional services (19,000 jobs), education (17,400 jobs), and public administration (15,800 jobs).[99] The Halifax economy is growing, with the Conference Board of Canada predicting strong 3.0% GDP growth for 2015.[99]

The Halifax Shipyard of Irving Shipbuilding, a major employer in Halifax

Major employers and economic generators include the Department of National Defence, the Port of Halifax, Irving Shipbuilding, the Nova Scotia Health Authority, IMP Group, Bell Aliant, Emera, the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, government, banks, and universities.[100] The municipality has a growing concentration of manufacturing industries and is becoming a major multi-modal transportation hub through growth at the port, the Halifax Stanfield International Airport, and improving rail and highway connections. Halifax is one of Canada's top four container ports in terms of the volume of cargo handled.[101] A real estate boom in recent years has led to numerous new property developments, including the gentrification of some former working-class areas.[99]

Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource industries found in the rural areas of the municipality. Halifax's largest agricultural district is in the Musquodoboit Valley; the total number of farms in Halifax is 150, of which 110 are family-owned. Fishing harbours are located along all coastal areas with some having an independent harbour authority, such as the Sheet Harbour Industrial Port,[102] and others being managed as small craft harbours under the federal Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

Government

[edit]
Halifax City Hall, the seat of municipal government

The Halifax Regional Municipality is governed by a mayor (elected at large) and a sixteen-person council. Councillors are elected by geographic district, with municipal elections occurring every four years. The current mayor of Halifax is Andy Fillmore. The Halifax Regional Council is responsible for all facets of municipal government, including the Halifax Regional Police, Halifax Public Libraries, Halifax Fire and Emergency, Halifax Regional Water Commission, parks and recreation, civic addressing, public works, waste management, and planning and development.[103] The provincial legislation that provides governance oversight to the municipality is the Halifax Regional Municipality Charter.[103] The municipality has a proposed operating budget of $869 million for 2015–2016.[104]

The municipality also has four community councils that consider local matters. Each community council comprises five or six regional councillors representing neighbouring districts.[105] Most community council decisions are subject to final approval by regional council.[103]

As the capital of Nova Scotia, Halifax is also the meeting place of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly, the oldest assembly in Canada and the site of the first responsible government in British North America.[106] The legislature meets in Province House, a nearly 200-year-old National Historic Site in downtown Halifax hailed as one of the finest examples of Palladian architecture in North America.[107]

The municipality is represented in the House of Commons by six MPs, elected in the ridings of Halifax, Halifax West, Dartmouth—Cole Harbour, Sackville—Preston—Chezzetcook, South Shore—St. Margarets, and Central Nova. The latter two ridings also include rural areas outside the municipality.[108]

Education

[edit]
Established in 1818, Dalhousie University is among the oldest English-language post-secondary institutions in Canada.

Halifax has a well-developed network of public and private schools, providing instruction from grade primary to grade twelve; 137 public schools are administered by the Halifax Regional Centre for Education, while eight public schools are administered by the Conseil scolaire acadien provincial.[109] The municipality's fourteen private schools are operated independently.[citation needed]

Transportation

[edit]

Air

[edit]

Halifax Stanfield International Airport serves Halifax and most of the province, providing scheduled flights to domestic and international destinations. The airport served 3,107,425 passengers in 2022, making it Canada's sixth busiest airport by passenger traffic.[110] Shearwater, part of CFB Halifax, is the air base for maritime helicopters employed by the Royal Canadian Navy and is located on the eastern side of Halifax Harbour.[citation needed]

Cycling

[edit]
An asphalt bike lane on Lower Water Street in downtown Halifax. The general traffic lanes and car parking spaces are to the left of the bike lane. The bike lane itself is at the same level as the sidewalk, on the right.
Dedicated bike lane in downtown Halifax

In recent years, the municipality has also begun to place increased emphasis on developing bicycling infrastructure. Halifax has developed 100 km (62 mi) of bikeways, 89 km (55 mi) of which are dedicated bicycle lanes.[111]

Road

[edit]

The urban core is linked by the Angus L. Macdonald and A. Murray MacKay suspension bridges, as well as the network of 100-series highways which function as expressways.[citation needed]

Public transit

[edit]
Halifax Transit ferry, Craig Blake, departing from Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Public transit is provided by Halifax Transit, which operates standard bus routes, regional express bus routes, as well as the pedestrian-only Halifax-Dartmouth Ferry Service. Established in 1752, the municipality's ferry service is the oldest continuously running salt water ferry service in North America.[112]

Rail

[edit]
The Port of Halifax is North America's first inbound and last outbound shipping gateway to Europe.

The Halifax Port Authority's various shipping terminals constitute the eastern terminus of Canadian National Railway's transcontinental network. Via Rail Canada provides overnight passenger rail service from the Halifax Railway Station three days a week to Montreal with the Ocean, a train equipped with sleeper cars that stops in major centres along the way, such as Moncton. The Halifax Railway Station also serves as the terminus for Maritime Bus, which serves destinations across the Maritimes.[citation needed]

Water

[edit]

Halifax Harbour is a major port used by numerous shipping lines, administered by the Halifax Port Authority. The Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Coast Guard have major installations along prominent sections of coastline in both Halifax and Dartmouth. The harbour is also home to a public ferry service connecting downtown Halifax to two locations in Dartmouth, with plans in development to add an additional ferry route connecting downtown and Bedford by 2028.[113]

Sheet Harbour is the other major port in the municipality and serves industrial users on the Eastern Shore.[citation needed]

Sister cities

[edit]
  • Hakodate, Japan (1982). The cities chose to twin because they both have star forts and are both maritime ports. Halifax has donated many fir trees to the annual Hakodate Christmas Fantasy festival.[114][115]
  • Campeche, Mexico (1999). Campeche was chosen because, like Halifax, it is "a capital of a state" and is "a city of similar size to Halifax on or near the coast having rich historical tradition".[116]
  • Norfolk, Virginia, United States (2006). Norfolk was chosen because, like Halifax, its economy "depends heavily on the presence of the Armed Forces, and both cities are very proud of their military history".[117]
  • Portsmouth, England (2023). Halifax and Portsmouth signed a sister city agreement in early 2023. They chose to twin as both cities are historic naval and shipbuilding centres. Additionally, both cities are centres for university education.[118][119]

Notable Haligonians

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
 
  1. ^ Also rendered as "Chebooktook"[10]
  2. ^ Based on station coordinates provided by Environment Canada and documentation from the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, weather data was collected in West End, Halifax from January 1863 to July 1933, at Citadel Hill from August 1933 to August 1939, at Downtown Halifax from September 1939 to July 1974, at Citadel Hill from August 1974 to January 2002 and at CFB Halifax (Windsor Park and Halifax Dockyard) from September 2004 to present.
  3. ^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.
  4. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Chinese", "Korean", and "Japanese" under visible minority section on census.
  5. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "West Asian" and "Arab" under visible minority section on census.
  6. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Filipino" and "Southeast Asian" under visible minority section on census.
  7. ^ Statistic includes total responses of "Visible minority, n.i.e." and "Multiple visible minorities" under visible minority section on census.

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[edit]
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Further reading

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[edit]

 

About Elite Trade Painting

Driving Directions in Halifax Regional Municipality


Interior Paint Color Trends
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